Working with bash shell

bash has several features that make command-line usage easier and more effective. You do not have to always type the whole command-line character by character. When you are typing the command, you can go backwards and forward by using the left and right arrow keys. You can delete the character left of the cursor with Backspace key. Pressing Ctrl-d or the Delete key deletes the character under the cursor. In addition to these basic command-line editing functions, you can use the keyboard commands listed in the table below.

Command	Function
`Ctrl-a`	Move the cursor to the beginning of the command-line
`Ctrl-e`	Move the cursor to the end of the command-line
`Ctrl-k`	Cuts all the characters right of the cursor
`Ctrl-y`	Paste the characters to the command-line (cut with `Ctrl-k`)

In bash the executed commands are stored in user's home directory in a file called .bash_history. To see the full list of recently executed commands, give command history. On the command-line, you can browse the list of previous commands with the up and down arrow keys. In cases where you need to give similar commands several times, it is often handy to get one of the previous commands to the command-line with the arrow key. Then you can edit just the modifications needed to the old command and execute the modified command by pressing Enter.

It's possible to search through the command history. Press Ctrl-r, then type what you want to search for. You do not need to type a complete search as the search results will update with each character pressed. To move between the search results, use the up and down arrow keys. To run the command, press the Return key. If you wish to edit the search result before running the command, use the left arrow key, then edit the command.

Automatic Tab completion

If you press the Tab key, the bash shell tries to complete the command or argument you are writing. The completion is done as far as possible using the list of available commands and files. Using auto-completion is very recommended as it saves the user from typing all command or argument characters and also takes care that commands don't get mistyped. For example, let's say we are in a directory where we have two files: final_research_report_old.pdf and final_research_report_new.pdf.

Tip

This will save you a lot of typing and typos!

For example, to check the type of the latter file, we could type the command:

file final_research_report_new.pdf

Typing long file names is slow and prone to mistakes. With Tab completion, you only need to type enough characters to identify the file. First type the command and the first letter of the file name:

file f

When you now press Tab, the completion process checks which files starting with f are available. In this case there are two of them and as the beginning of the two file names is the same string, the command can now be completed to:

file final_research_report_

Now you just need to type one n to the end of file name to distinguish the file from the old version,

file final_research_report_n

When the Tab key is now pressed again there is only one option that matches the beginning of the argument that has been typed, and thus the command is completed and ready to be executed:

file final_research_report_new.pdf

Stopping programs and running programs in background

In Linux, graphical interfaces and commands that are not interactive once they have started, can be executed as background processes. When the command is executed as a background process, the command shell does not wait until the command is finished. Instead, it remains active and allows the user to submit new commands while the background command gets executed. However, note that in the computing clusters of CSC, heavy computing tasks should not be executed as background processes, but they should be submitted to the batch queue system.

In normal interactive usage you can launch the command to be executed in the background by adding & character to the end of the command. For example, the command

feh image1.jpg &

would open the feh image viewing program (requires X-term connection) to the background so that the command shell could still be used even though the feh command is still running. A background process can be changed to normal, foreground process with command fg. When a command and program is running interactively, i.e. the command shell is waiting that the execution finishes, you can terminate the execution by pressing Ctrl-c. Another possibility is to halt the program by pressing Ctrl-z. When a command (or process) is halted, it can be continued with fg command or changed to be executed as a background process with command bg.

A command that is still running can be terminated with kill command. To be able to use kill, you need to know the process identification number (PID) of the command you want to terminate. You can check your active processes, meaning the commands that you are currently executing, with command ps. For example:

$ ps
PID TTY          TIME CMD
385 pts/12    00:00:00 bash
2001 pts/12   00:00:00 feh
2003 pts/12   00:00:00 gconfd-2
2203 pts/12   00:00:00 ps

By default, the ps command shows only those processes that have been launched from the command shell you are currently using. To see all your processes in the server you have logged in to, give command:

ps -fu $USER

Once you have identified the correct process number, you can kill the process with command:

kill PID

For example, the command

kill 2001

would kill the feh process, listed in the output of the previous ps example. You can only kill processes that are owned by your account. Sometimes when you want to kill a process that is malfunctioning, the normal kill command may not able to terminate the process. In those cases you can try to terminate the process by adding option -9 to the kill command:

kill -9 PID